The Development and Marketing of Genetically Engineered Agricultural Products: A Literature Guide and Tracer Bullet

Compiled by Susan C. Hunnicutt, Student, Wayne State University Library and Information Science Program, schunnicut@aol.com.

A. Scope Note

This literature guide identifies and organizes information on biotechnology, specifically as it is used in agriculture. It is intended for farmers and other non-scientists who are interested in learning more about the development of genetically modified or engineered agricultural products, the biological science and market economies on which they depend.

A resource of this kind is important because while bio-engineered crops offer many advantages to farmers, they have also been a source of global controversy. Issues raised have included their possible impact on the environment, human health, and the global farm economy in general. In addition, a persistent though not well-articulated element in the cultural criticism of genetically modified crops is that this technology is imbedded in seeds, powerful age-old symbols both of sacred power and of a natural and human world that is perceived by many as threatened (Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechnology, 2001; Charles, 2001; Purdue University News Service, (N.D.). A recent U.S. Department of Agriculture report, citing the broad range of non-farm (cultural and consumer-based) concerns that have been raised about agricultural biotechnology, stressed the importance of "an accurate read on benefits and costs to farmers" as "an important component of a more complete social welfare calculus." (USDA, 2002, p. iv)

Weed control is one of the most critical factors determining agricultural outcomes. The first genetically modified agricultural crop to be commercially produced was Roundup Ready soybeans developed by Monsanto. The seeds are a companion product to Roundup (chemical name: glyphosate), a broad-spectrum herbicide also developed by Monsanto that is effective against most varieties of leafy green plant. Many farmers have embraced genetically modified crops because they provide significant reductions in the time required to cultivate and spray. In addition to its effectiveness against weeds, glyphosate is relatively non-toxic. Compared with other herbicides, it breaks down quickly in the soil, and thus has minimal toxicity in the environment" (USDA, 2002).

Ordinary soybeans, like most crop plants, are vulnerable to the herbicidal effects of glyphosate. Glyphosate-resistant soybeans were created by inserting a glyphosate-resistant bacterial gene into the DNA of a carefully selected variety of soybean. (Charles, 2001). It is this ability to transfer genetic material from one species to another that distinguishes genetically engineered products from the products of conventional breeding. The glyphosate-resistant bacterial trait was genetically "captured" by the soybeans so that succeeding generations of plants carry the glyphosate-resistant gene.

Genetically modified soybeans became available to farmers in limited quantities in 1996. They have since been rapidly adopted by farmers, who find they greatly simplify the farming process. In 1997, 17 percent of soybeans planted in the U.S. were genetically modified, followed by 56 percent in 1999, and 68 percent in 2001 (USDA, 2002).

In Michigan, 73% of the total acres planted in soybeans were planted with genetically modified seed in 2003. (Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechnology, 2003)

In addition to herbicide tolerance, agricultural crops have also been genetically modified to be toxic to insect-pests.

In terms of acreage planted, soybeans are the largest genetically modified crop in production in the U.S., followed by corn, cotton and canola.

In exchange for the convenience of growing herbicide-tolerant crops, farmers pay a licensing fee for each unit of seed purchased. Because the seeds themselves are considered intellectual property, farmers also agree at the time of purchase that they will not plant seeds that they harvest. A controversial moment in the development of agricultural biotechnology came when a U.S. Department of Agriculture scientist developed a plan to protect intellectual property rights of biotechnology firms by engineering sterility into the next generation of plants produced by genetically modified commercial seed stock (Feder, 1999). The proposed "Terminator" technology evoked a deeply emotional response in Europe, but barely evoked any response among American consumers who seem to know little about it.

Although genetically modified crops have been rapidly adopted by U.S. farmers, concerns have been raised about their health safety and their impact on the environment. Objections have also been raised because agricultural germ plasm- the genetic material of reproduction-- once part of a shared human heritage, is now considered intellectual property that can be owned by private companies. In recent years, Monsanto and its competitor, Dow Chemical, have acquired proprietary control over much of the commercial seed industry. In addition to concerns about concentrated corporate control of the global food supply, concerns have been raised that "agricultural research, once the realm of public institutions like land-grant colleges, is increasingly being controlled by private companies... patent restrictions are choking free exchange of seeds and technology that has nourished public system" (Pollack, 2001).

The resources cited here are intended to provide a starting point for consumer research (including farm research) on the biology, research and regulatory history, farm-level implementation, and economic impact of this technology. A representative selection of New York Times articles chronicling corporate investment in the development of genetically modified agricultural crops, subsequent consolidation of the commercial seed industry, and public response to these events, is included in Section L.

B. Introductions to the topic

Adoption of Bioengineered Crops
http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/aer810
ERS Agricultural Economic Report No. AER810. 67 pp, May 2002
This is a readable though lengthy source for information on how transgenic crops have changed farming in the U.S. USDA survey data is used to explore the adoption by U.S. farmers of bioengineered crops, factors affecting their adoption, and the impacts of genetically engineered crops on input use and farm level net returns. It is posted as a series of small PDF files that can be individually downloaded.

Eichenwald, K. (2001, January 25). Biotechnology food: from lab to a debacle. New York Times, p. A1.
A widely-cited newspaper article chronicles the development and introduction of the first genetically modified agricultural products, and Monsanto's efforts to control the regulatory climate surrounding them.

Factsheet: Genetically Modified Crops in the United States. (2003). The Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechnology
http://pewagbiotech.org/resources/factsheets/display.php3?FactsheetID=2
This is an excellent resource for general information on the history of agricultural biotechnology. It includes United States Department of Agriculture and National Agricultural Statistics Service data on total acres planted in GM crops in the U.S., and in the highest producing states, annually from 1996 to 2003.

Transgenic Crops: An Introduction and Resource Guide
http://www.colostate.edu/programs/lifesciences/TransgenicCrops/index.html
The recipient of an American Society of Agronomy award for educational excellence, this website was produced by the plant genetics faculty of Colorado State University. It focuses on providing "balanced information and links to other resources on the technology and issues surrounding transgenic crops (also known as genetically modified or GM crops)."

C. Relevant search terms: Subject Headings and Keywords

These are terms that can be used to search databases, library card catalogs and the Internet.

Subject headings:
Agricultural Biotechnology
Biotechnology
Biotechnology industries --United States
Biotechnology --moral and ethical aspects
Biotechnology --social aspects
Botany
Crops - genetic engineering
Food - biotechnology
Genetically modified foods - United States
Genetically modified foods - government policy - United States
Plant genetic engineering
Transgenic plants

Keywords: biotechnology, technology adoption, genetic engineering, pest management, financial effects, tillage, herbicide-tolerant crops, bt crops, corn, soybeans, cotton: transgenic plants; plant genetic engineering crops; genetically modified organisms

D. Basic Texts

Stern, Kingsley L. (2000). Introductory Plant Biology. Boston: McGraw Hill.
An introductory textbook, including a chapter titled "Plant Propogation and Biotechnology" that covers traditional plant breeding as well as genetic engineering and recombinant DNA technology.

E. Additional Texts

Charles, D. (2001). Lords of the harvest: Biotech, big money and the future of food. Cambridge: Perseus Publishing.
Charles, a technology correspondent for National Public Radio, chronicles the scientific development of genetically modified soybeans, U.S. regulatory policy, and the controversy surrounding the marketing of genetically modified agricultural products.

Ford, B. J. (2000). The future of food. New York: Thames & Hudson.
A British biologist discusses a number of current issues surrounding food, culture, technology and safety, including food borne illness and the role of genetic engineering.

Lambrecht, B. (2001). Dinner at the new gene café: How genetic engineering is changing what we eat, how we live, and the global politics of food. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Lambrecht has been the Washington correspondent for the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, hometown newspaper for Monsanto, since 1989. This book covers much of the same material as the Daniel Charles' book, but from a slightly different perspective.

Martineau, B. (2001). First fruit: The creation of the flavr savr tomato and the birth of genetically engineered food. New York: McGraw Hill.
One of the Calgene scientists who worked on the ill-fated Flavr Savr tomato explores the business and scientific factors driving the development of genetically modified foods.

Rifkin, J. (1998). The biotech century: harnessing the gene and remaking the world. New York: Penguin Putnam.
This book explores the interrelationships of science, technology, economics and culture, and how they have and will continue to change as a result of recent advances in biotechnology, including agricultural biotechnology.

F. Handbooks, Encyclopedias and Dictionaries

King, R.C. & Stansfield, W.D. (1996). A dictionary of genetics. 5th ed. Oxford University Press.

Meyers, R.A. ed. (1995) Molecular biology and biotechnology: A comprehensive desk reference. Wiley.

Rudin, N. (1997). Dictionary of modern biology. Barron's Educational Series.

G. Bibliographies

Bauer, M. & Shields, M.A. (1997). Resistance to new technology: Nuclear power, information technology and biotechnology. Technology and Culture, 38 (2), 535.

Kay, L.E. (1994). Robert Bud, The Uses of Life: A history of biotechnology. Technology and Culture, 35 (3) 648.

Krimsky, S, Wrubel, R. & Hamlin, C. (1998). Agricultural biotechnology and the environment: Science, policy and social issues. Technology and Culture, 39 (2), 334.

H. Indexing and Abstracting Journals

Keywords: biotechnology, genetically modified corn, genetically modified soybeans, genetically engineered, and agriculture

AGRICOLA
http://www.nal.usda.gov/ag98/
The AGRICOLA database is a project of the National Agricultural Library. It indexes agricultural literature published in the U.S. and internationally, including journal articles, audiovisual materials, chapters of books, software, maps and databases.

Biological & Agricultural Index
This index includes popular and academic periodicals published in the U.S. and abroad that cover biology and agriculture. It is updated monthly. It can be accessed through the Michigan Electronic Library: http://mel.lib.mi.us/

I. Journals that often contain articles on the development of genetically engineered crop plants include:

Annals of Biology
Bioscience
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
Journal of Agricultural Science
Journal of Biotechnology
Journal of the Science of Food & Agriculture
Nature
Nature Biotechnology
Plant Journal
Technology and Culture
Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences Arts & Letters

J. Additional Sources of Information (Organizations)

Center for Science in the Public Interest: Biotechnology Project
http://cspinet.org/biotech/
The CSPI Biotechnology Project examines scientific and policy issues surrounding the development and marketing of genetically engineered plants, animals and other organisms.

Center for Science in the Public Interest
1875 Connecticut Ave. N.W.
Suite 300
Washington, D.C. 20009
Phone: (202) 332-9110
FAX: (202) 265-4954
E-mail: cspi@cspinet.org

The Sierra Club
http://www.sierraclub.org/biotech/
The Sierra Club website includes a policy statement on biotechnology adopted by the Sierra Club board of directors and a report, Genetic Engineering at a Historic Crossroads, published by the Sierra Club Genetic Engineering Committee. Includes a discussion of religious issues relating to food and biotechnology.

Sierra Club
National Headquarters
85 Second Street, 2nd Floor
San Francisco, CA 94105
USA
Phone: 415-977-5500
Fax: 415-977-5799

K. WWW sites

Agricultural Communications Documentation Center (ACDC)
http://web.aces.uiuc.edu/agcomdb/docctr.html
The website, a project of the agricultural communications faculty at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, focuses human and social (non-technical) dimensions of agriculture and agricultural technology. Its searchable database includes "books, journal articles, conference proceedings, theses and dissertations, class reports, thought pieces, audio recordings, extension studies, proposals, letters, unpublished materials."

AgNic
http://www.agnic.org/
A guide to agricultural information on the Internat. AgNic is a project of the National Agricultural Library, Land-Grant Universities, and other institutions.

Agricultural Research Service
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/qtr/
The research agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Publishes ARS Quarterly Reports.

Archer Daniels Midland (ADM)
http://www.admworld.com/
ADM is a biotechnology and agricultural services company that aspires to advance its commercial interests and end world hunger at the same time by "using technology to unlock the potential of nature". Its attractive television commercials proclaiming "The Nature of What's to Come" target an audience that is socially concerned and globally aware.

The Crop Science Society of America (CSSA)
http://www.crops.org/
CSSA is an organization of agricultural scientists and educators with specialized interest and knowledge in seed genetics and plant breeding, crop physiology, quality and ecology. The CSSA Perspective on Biotechnology, which is generally positive toward the creation of transgenic crop species, is posted on the website.

Monsanto Imagine
http://www.monsanto.com/monsanto/layout/default.asp
Monsanto's consumer oriented website includes product information, investor information and links to recent news articles. The Agricultural Biotechnology page provides an explanation of basic science involved in the creation of genetically modified agricultural products.

L. Other relevant materials

Coverage of agricultural biotechnology in the New York Times 1990-2001.

Additional material of this type can be accessed through ProQuest - The New York Times (r) Ondisc.

March 23, 1990
Washington-" In a setback to four of the nation's largest chemical and drug companies, the Wisconsin Legislature voted today to bar temporarily the commercial use or sale of genetically engineered growth hormone intended to increase milk production in dairy cows... The action culminates four years of debate in Wisconsin, the nation's largest supplier of milk and dairy products, and is the first time anywhere that a legislative body has voted to restrict the use of a genetically engineered product." (Sec: A National Desk p: 12.)

February 13, 1991
Washington-"The Food and Drug Administration has ordered the manufacturer of a genetically engineered hormone that increases milk production to stop promoting the drug while it is still under Government review. Federal officials maintained that the manufacturer, the Monsanto Company, was promoting the product, bovine growth hormone, as being safe and effective but that safety had not yet been determined by the F.D.A." (Sec: B National Desk p: 5.)

January 31, 1995
Chicago-"The Monsanto Company said today that about 11 percent of the nation's dairy farmers were using the company's synthetic version of a naturally occurring growth hormone to increase milk production in their cows. The announcement came almost a year after the Federal Government gave Monsanto permission to sell the drug, rejecting bitter objections by people opposed to genetic engineering in agriculture." (Sec: D Financial Desk p: 4.)

April 11, 1995
Washington-" The Environmental Protection Agency has tentatively approved the cultivation of crops that have been genetically altered to make their own pesticides." (Sec: A National Desk p: 23.)

June 29, 1995
The Monsanto Company said yesterday that it would acquire a 49.9 percent stake in Calgene Inc., the biotechnology company best known for its development of a genetically engineered tomato, for $30 million. As part of the transaction, Monsanto will turn over to Calgene its 50 percent interest in Gargiulo L.P., the largest packer and shipper of fresh tomatoes in the United States." (Sec: D Financial Desk p: 3.)

March 3, 1996
Monmouth, Ill.-"This spring, Joe Tusek and many of his fellow farmers here in western Illinois will plant soybean seeds fortified with a biological weapon borrowed from the petunia. The genetic alteration will enable the farmers to cut costs by dousing their crops with Roundup, a cheap but powerful Monsanto herbicide that would kill normal soybean plants along with the weeds." (Sec: 3 Financial Desk: p: 3.)

March 21, 1996
Chicago-"Bolstering its claim to be the leader in agricultural biotechnology, the Monsanto Company said today that it had received a patent covering the synthetic genes that it and other companies have been inserting in plants to get them to produce their own insecticide." (Sec: D Financial Desk p: 17.)

April 9, 1996
"W. R. Grace Company said yesterday that it had agreed to sell a unit of its Agracetus subsidiary that develops genetically altered products for the agricultural and pharmaceutical industries. The unit... is to be sold to the Monsanto Company for $150 million in cash." (Sec: D Financial Desk p: 4.)

September 25, 1996
The Monsanto Company said yesterday that it would buy the Asgrow Agronomics business of Seminis Inc., a subsidiary of Empresas La Moderna S.A. de C.V. of Mexico, for $240 million." (Sec: D Financial Desk p: 3.)

November 7, 1996
London-"As genetically modified soybeans from the United States begin to arrive in Europe, concerns about possible health risks raised by consumer groups and critics of biotechnology are prompting a boycott by some food producers and supermarket chains." (Sec: D Financial Desk p: 1.)

December 10, 1996
Chicago-"The Monsanto Company, which announced in October that it was considering shedding its $3 billion chemicals business, said today that it would spin the unit off to Monsanto's shareholders and in the process cut up to 2,500 jobs, 9 percent of the company's work force." (Sec: D Financial Desk p: 4.)

January 7, 1997
In an effort to capitalize on what it sees as a revolution in agricultural biotechnology, the Monsanto Company said yesterday that it had agreed to buy Holden's Foundation Seeds Inc., a major corn seed producer, and two Holden seed distributors, for $1.02 billion." (Sec: D Business/Financial Desk p: 8.)

April 2, 1997
"The Monsanto Company said yesterday that it had agreed to acquire the remaining shares of Calgene Inc. that it does not already own for $8 each, or $240 million." (Sec: D Business/Financial Desk p: 4.)

May 21, 1997
"Last December, Whole Foods Market, the largest natural foods supermarket chain in the country, sent letters to more than 400 of its suppliers, asking if their products contained genetically engineered ingredients. About three-quarters of the suppliers have not yet responded. 'Most of them don't know about their ingredients...," said Margaret Wittenburg, quality assurance director of Whole Foods, who wrote the letter." (Sec: C Home Desk p: 3.)

August 8, 1997
Chicago-E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company said today that it would invest $1.7 billion in Pioneer Hi-Bred International Inc., creating a powerful rival to the Monsanto Company and others in the fast-growing business of genetically engineered agriculture." (Sec: D Business/Financial Desk p: 3.)

February 12, 1998
"DeKalb Genetics Corp, second-largest seed company in the nation, says it is putting itself up for sale, setting stage for battle for biotechnology supremacy in agriculture; analysts say most likely buyer will be Monsanto Company..." (Sec: D Business/Financial Desk p: 1.)

May 2, 1998
"St. Louis-As biotechnology pioneers like the Monsanto Company see it, the moment is arriving when science can give business the power to put the clock of evolution on fast forward..." (Sec: D Business/Financial Desk p: 1.)

May 12, 1998
"The Monsanto Company announced deals today valued at about $4.4 billion that would give it control of the DeKalb Genetics Corporation and the Delta and Pine Land Company, two seed companies that had been its partners in creating genetically modified crops... DeKalb is the second-largest producer of hybrid corn seed after Pioneer HiBred International, Inc., which is partly owned by DuPont..." (Sec: D Business/Financial Desk p: 2.)

June 29, 1998
"The Monsanto Company will buy Cargill Inc.'s international seed operations for $1.4 billion, the two companies said today, in one of the clearest signs yet of expectations that biotechnology will play a pivotal role in agriculture's future..." (Sec: D Business/Financial Desk p: 2.)

July 16, 1998
"The Monsanto Company said yesterday that it had agreed to acquire Plant Breeding International Cambridge Ltd., a British subsidiary of Unilever P.L.C., for about $525 million in cash, marking its fourth major seed company acquisition in two months. Monsanto said the unit's strength in the cereal seeds would complement Monsanto's powerful position in corn, soybeans and cotton seeds..." (Sec: D Business/Financial Desk p: 4.)

December 1, 1998
The Monsanto Company said yesterday that it had resolved Federal antitrust concerns over its $2.3 billion purchase of the 60 percent of the DeKalb Genetics Corporation that it does not already own..." (Sec: C Business/Financial Desk p: 4.)

March 13, 1999
"Pioneer Hi-Bred International, the world's largest producer of seed corn, and the DuPont Company announced yesterday that they were discussing a possible combination, raising the prospect of a bidding war in the agriculture industry..." (Sec: C Business/Financial Desk p: 1.)

March 16, 1999
"The DuPont Company, seeking to create an agricultural powerhouse to match its giant chemical business, said yesterday that it would pay more than $7.7 billion in cash and stock to buy the remaining 80 percent of Pioneer Hi-Bred International, the world's largest producer of seed corn... In acquiring Pioneer, which sells corn, soybean and other seeds, DuPont hopes to develop genetically altered seeds and sell them directly to farmers worldwide in tandem with DuPont's herbicides and pesticides." (Sec: C Business/Financial Desk p: 2.)

April 19, 1999
"Agriculture Department scientist Melvin Oliver has changed course of debate over biotechnology's role in agriculture with his idea for creating seeds that can render plants sterile; joint patent covering his inspiration was issued just over year ago to Federal Government and Delta and Pine Land Company critics... see it as threat to farmer's security..." (Sec: A National Desk p: 18.)

January 24, 2000
Nearly a year after the United States blocked a proposed global treaty to regulate trade in genetically modified products, delegates from more than 130 nations will resume negotiations today in Montreal in search of a breakthrough..." (Sec: A Foreign Desk p: 10.)

January 30, 2000
Montreal-"Delegates from more than 130 nations today adopted the first global treaty regulating trade in genetically modified products, setting up an international framework for the increasingly heated and divisive debate about foods made with biotechnology..." (Sec: 1 Foreign Desk p: 1.)

June 10, 2001
"Despite persistent concerns about genetically modified crops, they are spreading so rapidly that it has become almost impossible for consumers to avoid them, agriculture experts say..." (Sec: 1 National Desk p: 1.)

May 15, 2001
"Agricultural research, once the realm of public institutions like land-grant colleges, is increasingly being controlled by private companies, a shift that alarms some farming experts; these critics say that patent restrictions are choking free exchange of seeds and technology that has nourished the public system." (Sec: F Science Desk p: 1.)

October 2, 2001
"In a finding that has taken researchers by surprise and alarmed environmentalists, the Mexican government has discovered that some of the country's native corn varieties have been contaminated with genetically engineered DNA. The contaminated seeds were collected from a region considered to be the world's center of diversity for corn-exactly the kind of repository of genetic variation that environmentalists and many scientists had hoped to protect from contamination." (Sec: F Health & Fitness p: 7.)

Sources cited in Scope Note:

Charles, D. (2001). Lords of the harvest: biotech, big money and the future of food. Cambridge: Perseus Publishing.

Feder, B.J. (1999, April 19). Plant sterility research inflames debate on biotechnology's role in farming. New York Times, p. A18.

Pollack, A. (2001, May 15). The green revolution yields to the bottom line. New York Times, p. F1.

Pew Initiataive on Food and Biotechnology. (2001). Views on genetically modified food and animals differ by religious beliefs. Retrieved September 10, 2003 from
http://www.bic.org.my/pdf/Religion_%20Pew_Initiative.pdf

Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechnology. (2003). Genetically modified crops in the United States. Retrieved September 9, 2003 from http://pewagbiotech.org/resources/factsheets/display.php3?FactsheetID=2

Purdue University News Service. (N.D.). Europe won't buy genetically modified grains, for now. Retrieved September 10, 2003 from http://www.purdue.edu/UNS/html4ever/0004.Thompson.GMO.html

United States Department of Agriculture. (2002). Adoption of bioengineered crops. (ERS Agricultural Economic Report No. AER81). Retrieved September 9, 2003 from http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/aer810

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